8.2.1 THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC
The Romans threw out the Etruscan Kings a Republic that expanded to cover the whole Italian Peninsilar
275 BC and the whole Mediterraneam by 146 BC. All citizens had the right to vote, paid taxes and served in the army but only
patricians (aristocrats) held public office. Representatives of plebians (commoners) called tribunes could veto any government
decision. The plebians forced writing Roman Law that had been known as a secret by patricians. Romans borrowed from Greek
culture and worshipped Greek deities. They also continued worshipping ancestral spirits and consulting soothsayers. Traditional
Roman values were thrift, discipline, self-sacrifice, and devotion to the family and the Republic. The well trained and disciplines
Roman army stayed in military settlements linked by good roads for quick communication. Romans fought Carthageans and won
control of the Mediterranean from Spain
to Asia Minor. The Republic weakened due to corruption, economic collapse, the wide rich-poor gap,
and rebellions. Attempts at reform failed. By 46 BC Cesar became was sole dictator of Rome.
He tried to reform but was assassinated in 44BC. A civil war ensued and by 31BC the Republic was replaced by an empire.
8.2.2 ROMAN EMPIRE
Octavius, a nephew of Cesar, became the first emperor of Rome
in 32BC and inaugurated a period of peace, pax romana, that lasted for 200
years. By 125 AD Roman law was standardized. A professional army kept the peace. Leisure and games developed. The empire enjoyed
economic prosperity and trade grew. Economic prosperity led to social changes. The birth rate fell. The family became unstable
due to frequent divorce and remarriage. Fathers lost absolute power and women gained more rights. Social mobility allowed
the poor to rise and the aristocrats to fall. Early Christians were persecuted until Emperor Constantine I gave Christians
freedom and himself became a Christian. Theodosius, the next emperor, made Christianity the official religion of the empire
in 392M.
8.2.3 DECLINE OF ROME
The empire declined because of political instability, high taxation, inflation, civil wars, assassinations,
and external invasions. When reforms failed the empire was divided into western and eastern wings to increase administrative
efficiency. When the army failed to defend the long borders, the western empire was destroyed by Barbarian invaders in 476
AD but the eastern empire (Byzantium) based at Constantinolople persisted until
1453. Throughout the middle ages there were attempts to recreate the European system that collapsed with the end of the Roman
Empire. The Frankish empire and later the Holy Roman Empires were inspired by the glory of ancient Rome.
The Byzantine Empire also tried to reconquer and re-unite the empire. These efforts failed to revive
Roman power.
8.2.5 D. ROMAN ACHIEVEMENTS
The Roman Empire (735 BC-475 AD) was one of the greatest empires in history.
At its peak it covered 5 million square kilometers and had 50 million citizens. Among its achievements were law and order,
architecture, civil engineering (roads and water acqueducts), medicine (Galen produced a compendium of medical knowledge known
at that time), astronomy (by Ptolmey), the Latin language (root of modern Romance languages).
8.2.5 POST-ROMAN ERA
The middle ages were a period of ignorance and collapse. The Church, the only well organized medieval
institution, became politically powerful, corrupt, and cruelly intolerant. Medieval society was feudal, oppressive, and exploitative.
Europeans never fully accepted Christianity imposed on them by force and the Church had to use force to maintain itself. The
Frankish empire and the the Holy Roman Empire were unsuccessful attempts at recreating the European
system of the Romans. Powerful medieval monarchies arose in England,
France, and Spain.
European crusaders inspired by the Church tried over 200 years to take over Muslim territory in West Asia
until they were finally defeated when Salahuddin al Ayyuubi recaptured Jerusalem
in 1187 AD. Contact of the crusaders with the more advanced Muslim civilization in West Asia encouraged
them to rejected the Church and start returning to their Greco-Roman religious and cultural roots (renaissance). The Byzantian
Empire became an advanced civilization with high standards of living. It was cosmopolitan, multi-national, and multi-religious
empire. Its economy was economy was based on agriculture and trade. The Church was prominent but under the emperor’s
control. Monasteries provided social services. The family was the center of social life. The Justinian code a codification
of Roman Law prevailed. Byzantine achievements were scholarship (especially theology), art and building, spread of Christianity
in Eastern Europe. Arts developed. The empire declined and its territories in West Asia were included in the Muslim
state. The capital was conquered by great Muslim commander Sultan Muhammad al Fatih in 1453 AD.
