We can derive concepts and guidelines about time management from our own heritage to motivate us towards more effective time utilization. Time is a scarce commodity that is ephemeral and must be used effectively and efficiently by correct prioritization and scheduling of events. We need to learn to avoid or solve problems of time management: lack of balance among various priorities, poor planning and scheduling, poor time budgeting and neglecting to factor in transition time, time-wasting habits and routines, not respecting punctuality, and failure to deal effectively and decisively with interruptions. In addition to effective use of the time available, students can create additional time by mastering techniques of speed reading and group study. The material in this presentation is adopted from the author’s student training material published on his website.

1.0 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

The underlying concepts influence the efficiency of time use. In pre-Islamic Arabia time was looked at as a dangerous destructive phenomenon, dahr. Islam changed many concepts about time. Time was before humans. Time measurement is also relative. Since the human lifespan is finite, time must be considered very important and finite. It is fleeting and should not be allowed to go to waste. Humans are accountable for how they use their time. Human activity is limited in the lifespan and opportunities missed are not recovered. For the human the earthly lifespan is the only time available to perform good acts; only 3 activities outlive the doer and are self-perpetuating in the time dimension: producing a righteous son, teaching useful knowledge, and continuing charity. Time is a resource and an opportunity at the disposal of humans. Human perception of time has innate limitations; humans cannot perceive very quick or very slow events.

Fundamental to good time management is the understanding that some time periods are of higher quality than others. The month of Ramadhan is better than other months. Some days have virtue over others. Friday has virtue over other days of the week. Time towards the end of a task has virtue over the rest of the times. Some time periods are disliked for prayer.

The level of sophistication and efficiency of individuals, societies, and civilizations is assessed by their efficient use of time. When two parties are equal in other resources, they compete over how efficient they use time. Winners control, schedule, and use their time optimally; losers waste it. Winners always know what to do at any one time, when to start and finish, what to start with and what to end with. They always have an objective and make sure that every activity they undertake is moving them toward the objective.

Time management becomes complicated if there are multiple priorities. The following principles can guide time prioritization. Good time management requires choosing the right priorities. Some tasks are more important than others for example acts of worship have priority in time allocation however exaggeration in worship is discouraged. Biological needs have preference in time allocation for example if food is served, it is recommended that a hungry worshipper starts with food to be able to concentrate in worship. Time should be allocated equitably between sleep and work. Some time should be set aside for leisure. Equilibrium, balance and moderation are required in time management. Different activities must be balanced. There should be time for the individual and the family. The Prophet (PBUH) time gave some of his time to do domestic work in his house. While thinking about our own priorities, we should not forget the needs of others but a proper balance must be established between personal and other priorities.

Every person must plan and schedule time but should remember to say say inshah Allah. While scheduling time we should remember that no time however short should be wasted so much so that the Prophet said that if the Last Day comes and a person has a seedling he should plant it although it will benefit nobody, the act of planting ensures that time is not allowed to pass away idly. Good time budgeting is necessary so that tasks scheduled can be fitted in the time available. The best work is what is manageable. It is better to schedule accomplishing small tasks on a regular basis than trying to do everything at the same time. The best of work is what is regular even if little.Transition time must be allowed from work to worship and vice versa. A period of rest and calming down before salat can prevent mind pre-occupation in worship. Retirement to bed should be early. Appointments must be kept. The schedule should not be filled with physical activities only; there should be periods allocated to meditation and sitting in the mosque which has a lot of spiritual benefits.

Our practice differs from the culture of punctuality that Islam inculcates and this is an area that requires improvement. The institutions of taharat and salat revolutionized society in the Arabian peninsula at the start of Islamic civilization by making cleanliness and punctuality the distinguishing social characteristics of Muslims. I however cannot say with certainty that our contemporary Muslim communities are both clean and punctual. Cleanliness was tied to salat and punctuality was ensured by fixing the times of salat were fixed. Avoiding late-coming by arriving early at the mosque brought great rewards. Punctuality was emphasized for salat, breaking the fast, burial, and debt repayment.

Habits and routines of life may lead to poor time management. They lead to negligence and forgetting of important duties. Omar was against procrastination which is a form of laziness. A Muslim must have the initiative to take action quickly. Interruptions must be managed carefully to avoid wasting time. Time is saved by brevity and precision.

3.1 Classification of events:

Events that make a demand on time can be classified into 4 categories depending on their importance and urgency. Urgent and Important, Urgent but not important, Not urgent but important, and Neither urgent nor Important. Different people under different circumstances may out emphasis on urgency or on importance. There is no fast and hard rule; the best choice is always dictated by the situation.

3.2 Time sensitivity of events:

Some activities like salat are time-sensitive and must be put on the schedule at the right time. Some events are not equally time-sensitive; they can be planned for the day but need not be assigned a specific time. A plan may be made to read a story during the day; there is not need to fix a time for it. It may be read during transitional or discretionary times.

3.3 Analysis of time use

In order to improve time management, current time utilization must be analyzed. All activities undertaken in the day are recorded. Each task is recorded separately: time started, time ended, total time expended, and the ranking of the task in importance compared to others. Such a record will prove a surprise to many people who are often not aware of their time utilization patterns. In modern times the use of the hand phone can be analyzed using the bill provided by the company. Many people do not realize how much time they spend on the phone.

4.1 Prioritizing on the basis of urgency or importance

Prioritizing using the rule of first come first served is not good because it treats all tasks and all time periods as if they were of equal importance. Starting with the easiest or the most difficult tasks again ignores relative importance. Important things even if not the most urgent should be given most priority. Sometimes unimportant matters claim a disproportionate amount of time because they seem so urgent!

When prioritizing a distinction must be made between what needs and wants and between what must be and what may be done. Priority is given to essential needs that must be attended to first.

Ibadat has the first priority. Next are biological needs such as sleep and food. There must be time for the family and for earning your livelihood. The body has its rights, huquuq al jasad. Rest, recreation, and pursuing interests that lead to personal satisfaction should not be neglected even if others do not consider them of high priority.

The ultimate aim of time prioritization decisions should be maximizing gains and minimizing losses. There can be no pure gain without some loss. Some compromises must be made here and there. Time taken away from business for the family is worth its while.

Constant self-questioning is needed to discover ways of maximizing time utility. There are many tasks that can be left without much loss and can be replaced for by more rewarding activities. Unexpected opportunities can occur that should be fully exploited. These windows of opportunity increase the amount of work accomplished in the day.

Stakeholders are people who can reward or punish. They must be given priority in time allocation decisions. Ignoring demand on time by a parent or a boss may not be prudent.

All time prioritization decisions must be by conscious choice and not passive following of others. It is better to stick to personal time priorities than to follow others’ priorities. Muslims must take charge of themselves and their time.

A calendar is the best ally of a busy person. It is important to plan and schedule time but flexibility must be exercised. The schedule is an aid and not an end in itself. It should never be allowed to become a slave master. All tasks must be recorded. Time must be budgeted correctly for each activity. Allowance must be made for contingency time. It is a mistake to think that one is too busy to have a few moments to write a schedule or check it. Scheduling should provide for appropriate pacing. Large projects should be broken up into small manageable steps. Each person should know the prime time for executing the most important tasks. The plan should be to get tasks done and finished. A careful balance is needed between work, personal and family time.

A daily checklist is made of things to do and also things not to do. The day should be scheduled as a Muslim. It starts with salat al fajr. Work should commence soon after salat al fajr without going back to sleep. A period of rest is planned in the middle of the day when the heat makes it difficult to do productive work. Bedtime should be early. The aim must be a fairly long uninterrupted period of sleep. Prayers and meals should be included in the daily schedule. Too many activities, distractions, or long projects should be avoided in the day’s schedule. There should objectives for the whole year. Some task however small towards accomplish the yearly goals should be included in the day’s plan. The best of work is what is constant even if little.

It is always possible to find time in the schedule for extra tasks by constant review and revision of the schedule. Some tasks may be deleted. Quicker ways of accomplishing tasks may be discovered. Delegation frees up a lot of time. Meal times, boring meetings, lengthy telephone conversations, and waiting for a latecomer can be used for urgent and short tasks.

Transitions between activities are a frequent cause of poor time management. Sufficient time must be allowed for the transition from one activity to another. Some activities are affected by those before them. It is for example difficult to concentrate in study immediately after involvement in a physically and mentally exhausting activity without transition time in between. Transition time is not dead time; it can be used to accomplish small tasks. Time between 2 meetings can be used to read a book or a report.

Discretionary time is that time that a person can use creatively. People with more discretionary time make more progress than those who have less. The schedule should therefore not be crowded. There should be space for discretionary activities.

6.4 Functional linkages: Linkages between consecutive activities must be planned correctly. The successful completion of some tasks requires that some pre-requisites be fulfilled. The pre-requisite must be scheduled and carried out before the intended tasks.

It is a mistake for a person to devote so much time to work earning a living and forgetting the needs of the body. The body has its own rights which consist of rest, eating, drinking, and recreation. Imbalances in time management violate the rights of the body leading to physical and psychological disorders.

Parents especially fathers spend so much time in work and social commitments and forget their families. As a consequence there is dysfunction in the family itself. Working parents may not devote enough time to their nurturing roles as mothers and fathers.

An individual must strike a balance between his commitments in the community and his or her own needs. Too much time in the community could affect the individual’s work and health. On the other hand being so engaged in personal pursuits and neglecting the community will weaken or even break the essential community social and psychological support networks.

Any human activity if carried out with the correct intention is an act of worship. It is therefore wrong to concentrate on certain types of worship while neglecting others.

Manifestations of poor time planning are: poor scheduling, poor prioritizing, lack of contingency plans, trying to do everything and not delegating, poorly kept diary that is incomplete and with conflicts, overwhelming work, changing priorities, and too many meetings.

Students get overwhelmed with too much work to be done in a short time. This may be inevitable but could also be due to poor planning or lack of the ability to anticipate time obligations. As a student try to avoid over-commitments outside your studies. When they occur try to reduce them to a manageable level.

8.3 Meetings: Avoid meetings that waste time and achieve little. The characteristics of such meetings are: no objective, no agenda, no time limits, and late coming.

Many mistakes in time planning arise out of failure to anticipate events such that emergencies get out of control and deadlines are missed. Emergencies and crisis management do occur but if they recur too often they indicate fundamental problems. You are in trouble if you spend all your time putting down fires. When a crisis occurs you must start by determining whose crisis it is. In many cases what we consider a crisis is someone else’s failure to plan well and is not our problem and we should tell him so. It is very bad to miss deadlines especially if this occurs repeatedly. It is an indication of poor planning or management. You must always have an internal deadline that is much earlier than the external deadline that you give to others. Be realistic when setting deadlines. Be ready to revise if the need arises. Make your commitments appropriate to your level of ability to deliver. Commitments should be soft when things are not that clear. Monitor progress as you go along so that you may revise the deadline in time.

The prophet enjoined haste in starting work. Avoid procrastination. Identify why you procrastinate. It may be unrealistic perfectionism, fear of failure, lack of self-confidence, lack of authority, worry about being criticized, or not being satisfied with work etc. Commit yourself to deadlines and when the time comes present the best work you can do knowing that you could improve if you worked longer at it. Clarify others' expectations you may be trying to achieve unreasonable standards. Do not continuously revise.

Certain routines of life lead to fixed habits and inflexibility. Habits can be good or bad. Bad habits are difficult to break. You need to find a correct balance between routines and a flexible life style. Ramadhan and i'itikaf are opportunities to break the daily routine of the year. They provide a welcome change.

Many people do not take control of their life and time. They do not plan and pursue specific goals and objectives. They just wait for things to happen and then take action. This reactive behavior wastes a lot of time and does not lead to any specific achievements over a time. Successful persons must be pro-active; they define goals and then pursue them. They know their priorities. They take pre-emptive action to resolve problems even before they are apparent to others.

The importance of punctuality is emphasized in the offering of the 5 daily prayers at fixed times. Punctuality is needed to make sure that salat al jama’at can be held with everybody present at the beginning.

There is an obvious dichotomy in the Muslim mind regarding punctuality. It is taken seriously for salat and is neglected for social events and work. Late coming is justified as culture and tradition and few get censured for being late.

Most people are late out of habit. Late coming tells a lot about a person. It is in a way the final common path for all inefficiencies that a person has such as poor time planning, poor planning of transition times and transition events, failure to do the right things at the right time, and inability to anticipate problems and solve them in advance. A person living in an inefficient home is likely to be late because of inability to get ready early in the morning. Persons who do not take care of servicing their cars will be late when the car breaks down on the way to the meeting. A persistently late person should therefore be considered as personally inefficient.

Those who come on time and have to wait for the latecomers before start of an activity are cheated out of their time. They are frustrated. They may decide to be also late the next time around to avoid having to wait and a vicious circle is completed. Those who come late may miss the start of the event and are thus not able to follow very well the rest of the time. They may even discuss matters out of context because they missed some information that was provided at the start of the meeting.

Latecomers usually plan to arrive on time. Since unforeseen circumstances can always happen, they end up delaying. The correct approach is to be in time, to plan to arrive before the appointed time. This leaves some time to absorb delays due to emergency or unforeseen situations

The commonest interruptions are: interruptions by too much paperwork, telephones, and drop-in visitors. These interruptions singly or together prevent listening, concentration, planning, and implementation. A strategic approach is needed in managing interruptions. Prevention is the best approach. If the interruption occurs it should be dealt with decisively to make sure it does not affect goals. A distraction does not deserve any more attention just because it seems urgent. If any distraction does not fit the priorities set it should be ignored or dismissed politely. Sticking to priorities is always the best policy.

Learn to control your time. Be prepared to say no if your schedule will not allow. Be polite when you turn down requests for your time so that you do not lose friends. When you turn people down, show understanding that their needs are important. Do something else as a substitute but at a time of your choice and convenience. Give more than time than was asked for when it is convenient to you.

Avoid people who waste time. They are robbers who take your time and leave you with the frustration of unfinished projects and missing deadlines. Teach others to respect your privacy. Communicate your displeasure firmly but politely. Be accessible at your convenience. Make sure that you cannot be found sometimes so that you can accomplish important and time-sensitive work. Be tactful, save time but lose no friends. Learn or develop techniques of screening visitors. You must be able to handle people who have no business with you.

Avoid lengthy conversations that do not contribute directly to your time priorities. Control conversations by steering them to subjects that interest you and allowing no digression. Master polite ways of cutting off a useless conversation so that you may accomplish some other work in the meanwhile.

Take care of the telephone; it is a proven time waster. Keep blocks of time for concentrated work when you do not answer the phone. Limit conversations on the phone and always ask specific questions and raise specific issues to save time. Organize and write down your thoughts before calling. Develop effective ways of screening telephone calls. Learn how to put callers on hold without irritating them.

Control your paper work. There are only three ways of dealing with any piece of paper that comes to you: throw it in the waste paper basket, file it away, or take action on it immediately. Sort your papers in a logical way that reflects priorities. Never handle a paper more than twice otherwise it will become part of your ‘pile’. Learn to work quickly and without mistakes. Mistakes waste time by requiring repeating the work. Concentration is the key to doing jobs faster. A well-organized work place saves time. Use model letters for routine correspondence. Make sure equipment and supplies are available. Organize your paper work on the desk. Keep a phone and address directory handy so that you do not have to waste time searching. Establish a systematic filing system to be able to retrieve documents easily.

12.0 CREATING EXTRA TIME / EXTENDING TIME BY SPEED READING

The information revolution means that the average person today has to absorb an increasing amount of information in order to stay competitive. This requires ability to assimilate a lot of information quickly. Ability to read fast means that you can get the information you need and have time for other activities. The eye strain of reading is also eased by speed-reading

The average person reads 200-300 words per minute. It is possible to double or even treble this speed. The phonetic left brain can read up to 1000 words per minute. The perceptual reading ability of the right brain ranges from 10,000 to 50,000 words per minute. Anyone can learn to read faster. This however requires commitment, discipline, and hard-work.

The human brain has the ability to ‘photograph’ information and process it later. You can look at a page and retain a lot of it in your mind without necessarily reading every word. This however requires some training.

Reading speed is a very individual characteristic and no two persons can be the same. The reading speed is determined by basic intelligence, motivation, psychological & physiological status, and general background knowledge.

Different types of material require different reading speeds. For example a newspaper can be read faster than a textbook. A novel read for enjoyment can be read faster since there is no pressure to recall details. The speed of reading is also affected by prior familiarity with the material read. It will take longer time to read and understand material that is new. Reading speed is affected by the appearance of the material. Upper case, italics, and right-justification slow down reading. Black characters on a white background increase the speed of reading. The letter size and interline spacing also affect reading speed in various ways depending on the reader.

There are several reasons for poor reading speed.

You must have a purpose for your reading; it will motivate you. If all you want is to get a general ‘feel’ for the material then all you need is to skim through. Read for ideas and concepts. Adjust your reading speed to the material. Some material can be read faster than other material. It is a mistake to read everything at the same speed. Do not read for isolated words. Concentrate on what you are reading and try to stamp out all extraneous matters. Aim at reading a passage once so make sure you concentrate to comprehend and do not rely on re-reading again. This will waste time. As you read test your self on your recall like what did I just read? If you cannot answer then you know you have a problem.

The reading environment also matters. Make sure you are seated comfortably. Have enough light. Use a books-stand to angle your reading material at 45 degrees to decrease eye strain. Avoid interruptions.

Remember that having a big vocabulary is a necessity fort faster reading. Improve your vocabulary in a systematic way. As general advice, the more you read the faster you will read. So try to read a lot and select diverse reading material.

Studying together with peers has all the advantages of team work. It is also has the advantage of saving time when the task of searching for information is shared among students so that they meet an individual can have the advantage of learning in just one hurl what the group as a whole spent 10 hours researching.

An individual is stimulated and motivated when he/she sees others studying and working hard. It is more difficult to feel tired and give up studying when in a group than when alone. Being in a study group gives emotional and psychological support that enables a student to have endurance especially when studying for a long time and under stress. The advantages of group study mentioned above can be achieved by sitting with a group of peers with everyone studying independently.

More advantages can be achieved if the study is integrated. There are several ways of integrating study. The material to be studied can be divided into sections and each participant takes responsibility to research and prepare a presentation for the others. The advantage of this is that a participant in the group is able to obtain information and notes on a very wide range of topics in a short time. It would have cost him/her too much time to make the research on all the topics. Another way in which integration can be achieved is by working on specific projects or questions that require answers. The contribution of everybody is very enriching. Integration can also be achieved while preparing for examinations. Students can take turns asking others likely questions and then discussing the answers correcting one another. A very effective way of integrated study is to ask a member of the team to explain a difficult concept to the others. It benefits the speaker to discover gaps in knowledge and understanding in as much as it benefits listeners.

Group study like any other team activity has disadvantages. Members of the group may start feeling that they are special and thus become arrogant. They may even feel that they know and understand better than others and in time may start relaxing and eventually fail. Some members of the group may be suppressed from making useful contributions by other members who feel that they know more and thus tend to be domineering. Members in a study group may not have compatible personalities and intra-group conflicts may make group study less beneficial.

Each study group should have a leader who may be permanent or may be changed at each meeting. Members of the group should be of the same age groups and preferably same academic level. It is however possible to mix people of different ages and academic levels so that the young can learn from the older. The group leader can lead discussion in some sessions and is also encouraged to delegate this responsibility to various members of the group.

Whoever has the responsibility for leading discussions must time preparing for the session. The time and place of the meeting should be selected carefully to be convenient for all members. The leader should make sure that all members participate. Special sessions should be set aside for collective self-evaluation by members of the group in terms of group dynamics and group achievements. The purpose should be fostering the spirit of sharing experiences and self-criticism.

Members should greet one another before starting. All members should endeavor to know one another by name. Any member wanting to go out for a valid reason must obtain the permission of the leader. All members must learn to listen and not interrupt others. They must obey the instructions of the leader. Members must avoid quarrels or loud arguments. A spirit of tolerance should exist with the understanding that there could be more than one way of being right. Excessive laughing or joking should be avoided. Members should sit with proper etiquette.